![]() ![]() For the latter, the captured CO 2 can either be stored subsurface (CCS-carbon capture and storage), or utilized in long-lived materials such as carbonate-based cement (CCU-carbon capture and utilization). a Mitigation is defined here as reducing the amount of CO 2 and other climate forcers released into the atmosphere by either reducing the source activities (e.g., less energy consumption), increasing efficiency (thus reducing emissions per unit of the activity, e.g., kWh of energy produced), or removing forcers like CO 2 directly at the source prior to their emission, e.g., from the concentrated stream of CO 2 at power or industrial plants. Proposed climate geoengineering techniques focused on in this review, placed in the context of mitigation efforts. In light of this situation, we assess the degree to which proposed climate geoengineering techniques could contribute significantly to achieving the Paris Agreement temperature goals during this century, which techniques can be largely disregarded in this context, and what the main open issues and research needs are, including the broader societal and political context. To provide context, observations 1 show that the global mean surface temperature increase above pre-industrial levels, \(\Delta \bar T_\) to below 2 ☌ found that 87% of the scenarios require a transition to global net negative emissions, i.e., a CO 2 removal rate exceeding gross emissions, during the second half of this century. ![]() Various measures are specified in support of this, including efforts “to achieve a balance between anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks of greenhouse gases in the second half of this century”. The Paris Agreement of the 21st UNFCCC Conference of Parties (COP21) in 2015 aims to limit “the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2 ☌ above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ☌ above pre-industrial levels”.
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